Leading in a changing word Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Leading in a changing word - Essay Example The leadership styles should be capable of responding to changes in customer demands, economic changes, political changes and changes in the expectations of the employees (Judge and Piccolo 2004: 755-768). According to the competency framework of leadership development, leaders are expected to deliver, build and drive organisational success. Leaders should create a plan and make decisions with confidence while managing ambiguity (Ibarra & Hansen 2011: 71). The leader should also drive change, innovation and make initiatives that unlock new business opportunities in order to satisfy customer changing needs. A leader should coach and mentor the subordinates while encouraging feedback and performance evaluation. Adair’s leadership model is an action-centered leadership model that asserts that leadership can be applied like a tool and concentrates on the ability of the leader to inspire a shared vision. (Adair 1973). According to Adair (2003: 04), the leader should provide directi on, build effective teams and set an example for the followers. This model asserts that the leadership style will depend on the character of the leader and unique situation including the needs of the followers and level of task differentiation. The leader should build the team spirit, ensure team cohesiveness and establish proper communication channels (Ibarra & Hansen 2011: 75). Transformational leadership model also provides the guidelines of leading in a changing business environment (Judge and Piccolo 2004: 755-768). This model of leadership requires the leader to intellectually stimulate the ideas of the followers through articulating a clear vision and expressing confidence (Mullins, 2010). Individualised influence and inspirational motivation of the leader ensures that the employees express their creativity. In addition, the leader acts as an example thus modeling the behaviour of subordinates. On the other hand, the model fails in supporting the unique cultural background of the diverse workforce since employees have different norms and values depending on their cultural norms (Judge and Piccolo 2004: 755-768). The above challenge can be addressed by ensuring that the leader gains the trust of followers and cordial working environment in order to support teamwork (Mullins, 2010: 378). Another leadership style is the situational leadership style that combines task behaviour and relationship behaviour. According to this theory, there is no one acceptable model of leadership. Ideally, this model asserts that leaders should change their leadership approach depending on the unique tasks and relationship with followers (Lord and Brown2001: 133-152). The model is acceptable since leaders need to cultivate enabling relationship with the followers. In addition, some tasks may be clearly defined thus requiring minimal leader intervention. In the changing business environment, leaders will be required to change their leadership approach depending on the underlyin g situation such as the level of relationships, the degree of task differentiation, the use of controls such as rewards and punishments in the organisation (Judge and Piccolo 2004: 755-768). The other model of leadership is transactional leadership. Transactional leaders emphasize on the task outcomes and mainly rely on power systems and control in order to attain the desired goals. This style is fair to all employees since everybody is expected

The Form and Function of The Eucharist in Modern, British Christianity Essay

The Form and Function of The Eucharist in Modern, British Christianity - Essay Example From the time Psychology became an independent field of enquiry the psychologists started studying religious phenomenon, especially rituals like the Eucharist. But for the exception of Islam and Buddhism all religions have some form of sacrifice. The Christian sacrifice of Eucharist is, in a way, the perfection of all the sacrifices that the world has witnessed, because it is the sacrifice performed by the Messiah Himself. Since no more sacrifices are required to atone for mankind, Christ Himself ordered mankind to perform the sacrifice in the form of Eucharistic celebration in which the materials used are wine and bread. But though the material used are wine and bread they turn into the body and blood of Christ. To find out the level of participation in UK two approaches have been used. To find out the general attitudes to Eucharist the tool of Focus Group was used. The study yielded ten different attitudes to Eucharist, ranging from wholehearted involvement to total apathy. Finally the statistical information on UK public to religion was used .It revealed that religion is matter of limited interest to UK public. Eucharist, par excellence, is community worship. Since the modern British Christians are members of religion only from the point of view of statistics only the participation in the Eucharist, is not matter of importance to them. Religious phenomenon started attracting the attention of scholars only in the latter half of 19th century. Religion was a subject surrounded in mystery and generally scholars did not study it as they studied other subjects. Subjects like sociology, anthropology and psychology however started making their entry into the study of religion. The attempt was praiseworthy as thinking man or woman is able to integrate his /her faith experience in the light of reason. In fact, many people thought that Darwin’s work would be the death knell of people’s faith in religion. But even after Darwin religion remains .The

Thomas Hobbes †Leviathon Essay Example for Free

Thomas Hobbes – Leviathon Essay Introduction   Thomas Hobbes, a noteworthy political theorist and contemporary of John Locke, offers a concept of justice that is dependent upon the existence of a social structure which he calls the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth arises out of a state of war which he entitles the state of nature. In the state of nature, all men are equal, and thus, they have equal right to liberty. This equality of liberty is without external impediments insofar as how far one is able to extend his own liberty in the preservation of ones self. When men form societies under the social contract, a covenant which expresses their promise to curb their own ambitions and passions, their liberty, in order to work for the common good and to escape the violence that pervades the mere exercise of human nature, is also created. They then, and only then, are able to define justice, which is only realized in the adherence to covenants, and covenants can only be established and adhered to within the Commonwealth. Outside of society, there are no guarantees for protection. Overview In the State of Nature, all men are equal and are equally able to threaten one another. From this equality arises an equality of hope in attaining their ends. What nature has not bestowed upon one man in brute strength, time bestows upon him in experience. The Right of Nature, according to Hobbes, is the liberty each person has to use their own power for their own preservation. Liberty, in this regard, is identified as a lack of constraints upon a person in regards to his own behaviors. If two want the same thing, and they both cannot have it, they become enemies and endeavor to destroy one another (Hobbes chpt. 13). It is thus within the natural order for men to strive for self-preservation, especially when their own liberty is compromised by anothers practice of his liberty. There are three principal causes of quarrels between men in the state of nature. First, competition causes man to attack one another for personal gain, to make himself the stronger of the two and to take that which he seeks from the other. The second reason a man would invade another mans liberty is for the latters own personal safety, and the principal is thus known as diffidence. Finally, the principal of glory, which is the third cause of quarrel according to Hobbes, stems from the want of a reputation and the need to protect it from attacks on an ones personhood, verbal or otherwise. It is ones reputation which makes one powerful and feared in the state of nature, and thus more able to attain what he wants and needs. Because there exists no way for everyone to be assured their liberty will not be infringed by another, they must, therefore, live in a constant state of war. There is no assurance of peace and there are no boundaries dictating the extent to which one can and must go to preserve his own liberty, even if it means the domination of others. Nothing can be unjust. The notions of right and wrong, justice and injustice, have no place (Hobbes Chpt. 13). Therefore, there can be no concept of justice, because justice distinguishes the boundaries existing between one mans ability to protect his liberty in the face of another mans endeavor to destroy it. Force and fraud are the cardinal virtues (Hobbes Chpt. 13). Force ensures ones survival, and fraud ensures ones betterment. Without the fear of punishment, nothing stops men from using them and without justice; the term fraud would have no conceptualization as its negative denotation would not exist in a world with no concept of right and wrong.    Examination The First Law of Nature is to seek peace, which is rational. As the main goal of man under the state of nature is self-preservation, peace cannot be sought unilaterally and it is against the nature of man to seek it when in doing so, he concedes his own liberty. In the state of nature, unimpeded liberty exists, and mans security in his life and liberty is questionable. In such a time, there can not be commerce, agriculture, arts, or society, as there is no means by which to ensure their security. Man must live in constant fear of death and violence, and hence, such aspects of culture cannot subsist under that threat. One has no other refuge, than that which his own strength can furnish to him, hence the importance of the three principles of conflict, which lead to gains in strength, the protection of ones life and liberty, and the protection of ones reputation. Hobbes amalgamates and summarizes the first three laws of nature into what is commonly known as the golden rule. Treat others as you would like to be treated. This rule conceptualizes the birth of the Commonwealth and the social contract, wherein man gives away his right of liberty in order to protect himself from the unrestricted liberty of others who also agree to do the same. This is the birth of both the Commonwealth and justice, and the death of the State of Nature. In order to understand the meaning of justice, one must first understand how Hobbes defines justice. Justice, according to Hobbes, is the keeping of covenants. Therefore, where there are no covenants, there can be no justice. In the State of Nature, there can be contracts, just as within the commonwealth, but not covenants. The reasons are as follows: a contract is the mutual transferring of right in the Hobbsian sense and because it is mutual, it is obligatory on both sides and realized simultaneously, however, insofar as a covenant is a transference of right between men in which one promises to fulfill his obligation in the future, the early performer of his duties can not be assured that the other will perform his end of the covenant because there are no external bridles hinging him to it, containing his ambition. To lay down a mans right to anything is to divest himself of the liberty of hindering another of the benefit of his own right to the same (Hobbes Chpt. 13). Only fear can achieve adherence to the covenant; only coercion can bring about fear; and only the Commonwealth can subdue a mans passions through coercion. Therefore, a covenant in the state of nature is no more than a gift given to another as there can be no guarantee that the first to act will get his due, moreover, justice, according to Hobbes, originally exists within the commonwealth. Conclusion The keeping of Justice within the commonwealth can be explained in two parts; first, by clarification of the role of law, and, second, through Hobbes concept of authorship. Law, as defined by Hobbes, is distinguishable from right insofar as right is the liberty to do, whereas law binds ones liberty. Law, he says, is derived from reason, and reason tells man that he should strive for peace, which is both the grounds for the establishment of society, and the first law of nature. As all voluntary acts are geared towards gain, and laying down the natural right is a voluntary act, it is done so in order to promote the peace, which is both reasonable and beneficial for the all parties in that the peace is maintained. The law that binds man and takes away his ability to infringe on the liberties of others compel men equally to the performance of their covenants, by the terror of some punishment greater than the benefit they expect by the breach of their covenant (Hobbes Chpt. 15). Therefore, it is the established laws of the Commonwealth which place the fear punishment in men and guides them to the fulfillment of their covenants. Secondly, as the Commonwealth is the unification of men who have conferred their power to govern themselves upon either one man, or an assembly of men, called the sovereign, in order to establish the peace, it is in mans nature to strive individually and collectively for peace in order for self-preservation. The sovereign represents the will of the unified men. The sovereign is the sole legislator, and represents the common good. The laws oblige all citizens and if the citizens have quarrel with the laws, then they only have quarrel with themselves. As the common good is represented by the laws, and as the law of nature, under which the Commonwealth and the sovereign alike were created, and the civil laws contain each other and are reasonable, and as it is the citizens who author the laws in respect to the common good, therefore, neither the common good nor the laws can ever be unjust or against reason. References Hobbes, Thomas; Leviathan, ed. C. B. Macpherson (Harmondsworth: Pelican, 1975)

Individual Freedom And Rights

Individual Freedom And Rights Is it most important to value ones own life, happiness and interest or to obey the higher authority of the state? This statement raises the question of the individuals freedom and rights in comparison to the states control over individuals life. In this paper I will be arguing against Socrates and Confucius view of placing the state ahead of the individual. This paper is constructed along my line of defense which looks at the issues and arguments around the individual freedom and rights. This argument largely dwells on the concept of freedom from Socratic and Confucius philosophy, Christianity and individual freedom and also modern/postmodern thinking on this subject. The concept of freedom and rights in ancient Greek Philosophy Socrates and Confucius are two major philosophers who tried to develop the relationship between the individual freedom, rights and the state control (Philosophy study guide). According to Beck both Confucius and Socrates lived in cultures where hereditary privilege was the main factor in social status. Neither of them was extremely high-born, but they certainly were not peasants either (Beck 2010:14) .Socrates contributed much on political discussion, he did not engage in political career. He was so much concerned with how state laws were implemented in city life style, which determined a healthy relationship between the citizens and the state. However, this relationship should not be forced or coerced on them rather it should come naturally. Both Socrates and Confucius teachings were meant to prepare men for the world of politics. This is why they both stressed the value and importance of ideals and portrayed the ideal state in the midst of various prevailing governments which were far from perfect. They criticized their unjust practices and diagnosed their problems. Socrates seems to have gone into more detail in delineating the different types of government (Beck 2010:7). But Confucius went further by teaching about the importance of self control and temperature. It taught about the ideals of social controls and proper behavior. Beck maintains that for Socrates and the Greeks personal behavior was focused more on the individual as his own responsibility of self-discipline and did not extend so strongly into the social milieu. The rules of propriety were designed to bring harmony in relationships, while temperance is concerned with the harmony within the individual (Beck 2010:5 ).This shows how individual freedom and rights played an important role in the mind of the Greeks. Of course, the State is important but too is individual liberty. However, both men emphasized the need for advancement of knowledge. This knowledge is to be taught in schools and public places. Confucian philosophy it today, being practiced in Japan, Korea and China. It puts much emphasis on learning and educational values but imitating the master teachers words and deeds. Education is therefore, being used to correct some unbecoming behavior from the ethical perspectives (Philosophy study guide). The ideals of Confucius philosophy has been translated into human behavior and values in the Far eastern societies. Taking the lessons from the Socratic and Confucius ideology, this philosophy emphasizes the need to practice virtue and temperature at all times, thus avoiding friction and rash actions (Beck, 2010). Christianity and individual rights Christianity was born in Palestine at the time of Roman colonial rule. The relationship between Christianity and the State was somewhat not healthy, as these two entities often collided both in principle and practice. Being a Roman Citizen at the time would incorporate many responsibilities and roles which one needed to follow. However, the Romans were considered to be atheists for their insistence on emperor worship. Roman Citizens were commanded by the law to publicly follow and worship the cultic figures that represented the Roman gods. This worship was characterized through private and public worship and giving of sacrifices (Stumbaugh Balch, 1996) in special places and temples. However, for many years intellectuals and philosophers began to question this cultic worship. Roman Citizens were required to perform some rituals, prayers and sacrifice to company their worship. Through this worship all citizens were obliged to affirm their allegiance to the emperor. Christians refused to follow the demands of the state to follow the worship of demi gods of Roman religions. As a result, this refusal led to the persecution of Christians who insisted in worshipping their only God and Lord Jesus Christ. Christians decided to live in different set of life style which is different from the religious institutions of the Roman Empire and its social environment. This shows the unhealthy relationship between the state and the church. This forced the Apostle Paul to address the issue of obeying the state laws and control in the Romans Chapter 13. The divine right of rulers has been disputed and discussed over the years. The question often asked is whether Christians are obliged to follows state laws and regulations. How far should Christians go to obey the laws of the state even when it is against their religion? For many years, Christian theologians and theologians have tried to grapple with the concept of the State and the Church. There are those who believe that the Church and State are mere sides of the same coin and therefore, Church leaders should be involved inn the affairs of the State. This view was largely developed by theologians such as Martin Luther, Zwingli and John Calvin (Stumbaugh Balch, 1996). It is through this theological thought that led to State Churches such as the Church of England and Lutheran Churches that are commonly found in the Scandinavian countries. On the other hand, there are those theological views which holds that Church is supreme over the State because it subscribes to the higher heavily powers. It is this divine authority which makes many churches to argue that they subjected to divine power and not state control. Those theologians who subscribes to this thought argue that the State is in subsidiary position to Church. Through out the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church view developed the notion that Church and State must be separate or remain separate entities. This thought also advocates that State and Church that must not just remain separate but is also independent of one another (Bramsted, 1978). Most of theologians hold the view that Church and State different entities and have different origins. The Church owes its origin and allegiance to God and therefore Christian followers need to express their allegiance from God. Whereas the State, is seen as the divine institution that has been put in place by God for human Society to exercise power and authority of human beings. However, the Church has no control over men, but can only appeal to their minds, hearts and consciences. As a result, those who have accepted to be under the rule of the Church must adhere to Cannon laws, rules and regulations (Stumbaugh Balch, 1996). In this case, the church would exercise authority over them, control their behavior patterns, thoughts and lives. The Church also has the power to correct, admonish or even discipline those who contrary to the rules of their faith. The concept of freedom and rights in modern European philosophy Modernity is considered to be the period between 1750 to late 1960s. The development of ideas in the western world is closely connected with the philosophical thoughts of their day. This period was associated with enlightenment thought often associated with scientific progress, technological advancement and industrial revolution. This new thinking permeated social thinking, values and relations. One those of those philosophers who contributed greatly to the development of enlightenment thinking in relation to individual freedom and rights were Jean Jacques Rousseau. Jean Jacques Rousseau, who lived between 1772 to 1778, is one of those philosophers who committed his life to follows the ideal of liberty during his political career. He followed the political line of republican persuasions and sympathized with the Republican ideals. He argued that the advent of western civilization corrupted the goodness of human nature (Friend, 2004). He emphasized that progress in the arts and sciences contributed to moral degeneration and the decay of modern societies. He argued that human beings existed because they live social groups that later produced inequality. And therefore, once people begins to live in fixed relations like social groups, the quest for freedom begins to emerge because they want to free themselves from social bondages and oppressive social contracts. Therefore, this is the beginning of social inequalities and oppressions. Concerning Civil Society, Rousseau argues that it was founded by the person or people who emerged by enclosing people in groups. Then it claimed ownership over the piece of land. Therefore, civil society has been used by individuals to justify and maintain relations in property, which is based on inequality and associated moral decays (Friend, 2004). However, although people have the will to choose what is right for them, it is important for everybody to set aside their own personal and ethno-cultural interests for the common good of others. Although, the concept of common goal is important, most scholars believe that it leads to a form of dictatorial leadership or authoritarian leadership. It also leads to dictatorship of the majority. The other European who developed this concept of the rights of man is Thomas Paine. He advocated for the rights of man theory was about the defense of the Principles of French Revolution. The other philosopher who contributed to the development of individual freedom was Thomas Pain. According to Paine, human beings are born with equal, human rights even though they do not live isolation with others in the society. Every human being has the right to live in freedom and enjoy the benefits of cooperation with others in the society. However, this is not often realized, in our societies because these principles are often violated because human beings are not perfect. They have imperfect and naturally deprived nature that always wants to do evil. Paine argued therefore, that the natural rights of all people can only be secured when people learn to deposit those rights which they cannot uphold as individual human beings. Nevertheless, the state has the overall of the individuals life especially when it comes to addressing the issues of violence against humanity. The state also has the overall rights over the protection against the harm of others. To him, it is only the state that has the mandate to ensure the stability of our societies. This means that a legitimate government must be based on the concept of people rule for the sake of the people (Friend, 2004). This type of government is what is often refereed to as democracy. It is only the democratic government that can be considered as a legitimate form of government which represents the rights of the people. Democratic governments are meant to defend and protect the rights of individual human beings and secure the security of all citizens (Bramsted, 1978). The concept of freedom and rights in the post modern world views Much of the western culture resulted from the matrix of the enlightenment period. It promoted the attitude of tolerance towards others and relative view towards belief of any time. The Enlightenment doctrine promoted then doctrine of individualism, purporting that individuals are free, emancipated and must act in autonomy. The basic principles democracy is based on the notion of government consent, in other words, it is about people centered government that is elected by people for the people. The power given to people derives from the electorates. The concept of individual rights to freedom has attracted lots criticism from the intellectual communities and philosophers. The Marxist philosopher argues that the rights of individual go contrary to social progress because they are not in line with cultural or historical relativity (Bramsted, 1978). Postmodernism rejected the enlightenment views that characterized much of then 18th to 19th century. Post modernism promoted the notion of pluralism, individualism and relativism. It rejected the notion of one blue print or overall dominant theme that dictates the thinking of man. Instead, it calls for the plural form of human relations. It opposes the notion of meta-narratives and calls for one many narratives in expanding human story. Contrary to the Enlightenment theory, post modernism attacks this concept of development or progress or the so called notion of forward match of history. Therefore, the principles of justice, freedom and rights in the postmodern world view are very much fragmented. It is also socially constructed depending on the social, economic, cultural and political contexts. The World western mostly exercise liberalism which is based on freedom and rights of individual human beings. This is why post modernism is often in loggerhead with modern enlightenment theor y (Bramsted 1978). However, the Liberal individualism which subscribes to Liberal democracy promotes the ideals of civil and political liberties. Civil liberty is big movement in the USA that pressures for the rights of Citizens. The theory of rights advocates for the rights of others and as well as their own. Such rights include life and liberty of others. This view has developed into human rights movement that taken centre stage in the world of politics advocating for universal human rights. Liberalism emphasizes the value of universal freedom and cosmopolitan citizenship. This view argues that individuals are allowed to display distinctive commitment to their personal lives but not to enforce them others. Civil liberties also argue that the government has no right to infiltrate into their personal lives. This means that we all have the rights to live a peaceful and free life without interference from the state (Bramsted, 1978). Personal Opinion Freedom is some thing which we all cherish and hold on to ideally. But individual freedom is something that is socially constructed. The concept of freedom has been misinterpret and misconceived. These views of freedom are erroneous in nature. Some people think that freedom is the absence of laws, regulation and restrictions. I have personally heard a teenager shouting back saying that they want to be free from their parents rules and regulations. Some even think that freedom is without anarchy or live a life without rules and regulations or rules. Many people and especially young people think that freedom is about living irresponsibility, without being responsible or being accountable to any body. For some people freedom is about the avoidance of work and obligation. This equates to laziness and being slack. But from my own understanding, freedom demands much of our time and work than when in bondage. When your are bound, you are well looked after by your captors for instance when you are in prison, it is the responsibility of the prison authorities to look after you. Further I have heard some people saying that freedom is retiring from responsibility. But is not true because one cannot separate freedom from responsibility these are two sides of the same coins. Indeed, some extend, say that freedom is about relaxation from social boundaries and rules, but this is misconception. One does have to relax because they are free. By and large, some even argue that freedom is being released from external control. They argue that it is about being left alone to do what they want or like without control from the parents, employers or even the government. Conclusion This paper has attempted to answer the question whether it most important to value ones own life, happiness and interest or to obey the higher authority of the state. It is question which address the question of individual freedom and rights. Individual freedom and rights are two concepts that are intertwined together. One cannot do without the other. The concept of freedom is often associated with being released from the external controls whereby one thinks that they are not held accountable or responsible to the others. These two views have been very contentious for many years as scholars contend with them. Beginning with the Greek philosophers such as Socrates and Confucius, individual freedom and rights were discussed in more details. These philosophers taught that although we are free agents were are still subjected to human control and governance. This means that we are still obliged to follow the rules and regulations of the state. However, the issue of obeying the state and its decrees is what caused much friction between the church and the state. For many years, the first century were persecuted by the Roman governments for now disobeying the emperors orders on cultic worship. This factor was taken board by theologians for many years latter as to whether the church is free from the powers of the state. This is also implied as to whether indeed Christians are free from following the rules and regulations ordered by the state. During the enlightenment period various thoughts began to emerge concerning the issue of individual freedom and right from modern Europe philosophers. These discourse produced further debates on liberalism, democracy and human rights. Following the end of modernity the postmodern paradigm began to emerge to give different views to those ones held by modernity thinkers. The post modern mind view argues that there is one met narratives, that we all have our stories of what is right and wrong, we should follow what is appropriate for us. I would not subscribe to any of these views but a mixture of both. I would like to argue that individual freedom is there, but we have to be accountable to what we do to others. Our concept of freedom, rights and happiness must be inline with the laws of our societies.

The Drinking Age Should Be Lowered Essay -- Lowering the Drinking Age

There are numerous problems involving alcohol in the world today, including alcoholism, drunk driving, and alcohol poisoning leading to death. Many of these problems involve minors and are linked to drinking underage. The legal drinking age in many states is twenty-one years old. The purpose of this law is to keep minors out of danger: away from drunk driving, alcohol poisoning, and injuring the brain before it is fully developed. The government supports the belief that people are not ready or responsible enough for alcohol until this age. However, various professors and researchers are discovering ways to disprove this belief. These people think that reducing the drinking age to eighteen would influence our country in a positive way. Not only do minors support this idea, but there are numerous people and organizations that support the idea of lowering the drinking age as well. The current drinking law is counterproductive in our society because it’s not effective in eliminating underage drinking, and leads to unsafe situations such as drunk driving and alcohol poison instigated deaths. This problem could be solved by lowering the minimum drinking age to eighteen, with a drinking license. â€Å"Either we are a nation of lawbreakers, or this is a bad law†, says John McCardell, author for the Greenhaven Press (McCardell, 2012). What McCardell is referring to is the law barring the consumption of alcohol in individuals under the age of twenty-one in the United States. John McCardell is the former president of Middlebury College, and he is also the founder of the Choose Responsibly group (Baldouf, 2007). This group is a nonprofit organization that travels around the country sharing McCardell’s proposal about the drinking age... ...m http://www.indiana.edu/~engs/articles/cqoped.html Fennell, R. (2007, December). Drinking Is Fun. Retrieved May 2014, from Academic OneFile: http://go.galegroup.com.bakerezproxy.palnet.info/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=DA- McCardell, J. (2012). The Drinking Age Should Be Lowered. (G. Press, Producer) Retrieved May 2014, from Gale Virtual Reference Library: http://go.galegroup.com.bakerezproxy.palnet.info/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=RELEVANCE&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL Rotunda, M. (2004). Prohibition. Retrieved May 2014, from CREDORreference: http://www.credoreference.com.bakerezproxy.palnet.info/entry/rutgersnj/prohibition Underage Drinking. (2005). Retrieved 2014, from Alcohol News: http://www.alcoholnews.org/Underage%20drinking.html Why 21? (2011). Retrieved May 2014, from MADD: http://www.madd.org/underage-drinking/why21/

Rage Disorder Essay -- Biology Essays Research Papers

Rage Disorder The study of the relationship between the mind and the brain can be traced back to 1895, when a little known Viennese neuro-psychiatrist named Sigmund Freud wrote a relatively unnoticed piece titled "A Project for a Scientific Psychology". In it, he proposed that the cognitive mechanisms of normal and abnormal mental phenomenon could be explained through an orderly study of brain systems. Throughout contemporary philosophy and psychology, the relationship between mind and brain has been extensively studied without a decisive resolution. One proposed solution has been to adopt the position that the mind is an expression of the activity of the brain and that these two are separable for purposes of analysis and discussion but inseparable in actuality. Thus, mental phenomenons arise from the brain, but mental experience also affects the brain. This is demonstrated by the many examples of environmental influences on brain plasticity. Mental illness can be categorized as reflecting abnorma lities in the brain/mind interaction with the surrounding world. (1) In the following paper, an assessment shall be made of how biology/neurobiology has impacted the study and diagnosis of mental illness. Two general conclusions will be drawn from this presentation. The first of these conclusions is that with time, money, and increased research, there will be an ever-expanding ability to discern biological and material identifiers of mental illness. The second conclusion that shall be drawn is that there will be a continued trend towards "blurring" the border between "normal" and "abnormal" behavior as mental illness is increasingly better understood. Each of these conclusions raises new issues that shall be addressed in the body... ...an beings; and third, they must provide a theory that is able to be modeled and tested in animals. (1) With these three criteria in place, there is a greater possibility for advanced screening as well as improved biomedical understanding of the link between mind and brain, shattering conceptual barriers of what constitutes mental illness. Sources Cited: Andreasen, Nancy C. "Linking Mind and Brain in the study of Mental Illnesses: A Project for a scientific Psychopathology," Science. 14 March 1997. Vol 275, No. 5306 p.1586-1592. Robins, E. and Guze, S.B. American Journal of Psychiatry. 126, 983 (1970). http://pslgroup.com/dg/2c6aa.htm http://www.schizophrenia.com/ami/diagnosis/MorSZ.html http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=hstat http://www.philly.com/mld/philly/ Feighner, J.P. et al. Archives of General Psychiatry. 26, 57, 1972.

Social Influences on Behavior

Social Influences on Behavior Somchai Knorr Grantham University Social Influences on Behavior â€Å"Sociologists and philosophers had recognized that people behave differently in crowds than they do as individuals and that a crowd is more than the mere sum of its parts† (Kowalski & Western, 2005). Human behavior changes based on social situations individuals may encounter, and these encounters may begin as early as toddler years. Individuals learn to adapt to society by changing their behavior in order to â€Å"fit in† with the rest of the crowd. Two examples of how an individual’s behavior changes based on social situations are when a) a person decides to drink liquor at a social event. The second example of when an individual’s behavior changes based on social situations is b) when a person decides to smoke marijuana or cigarettes. One may see these behaviors in an individual who regularly does not behave like so when they are trying to act like â€Å"everyone else. † These behaviors may be seen in situations such as a party, a club, or a popular social event, where an individual will find it fitting to behave differently to receive recognition from other social crowds. Precursors and Consequences â€Å"When he first arrived on campus at age 18, he figured he had to drink if he wanted to fit in, even though the legal drinking age is 21† (Wilson, 2008). Students, especially in colleges and universities, find themselves in situations where they believe they have to take part in drinking and partying to get approval from the rest of the student body to increase their self-esteem and popularity. An example of social comparison would be a student drinking and smoking to fit in with the crowd. Adults may also find themselves peer pressured to drink alcohol or smoke when taking part in extracurricular activities, such as going out to clubs or attending social events, to feel relaxed or content. Drinking and smoking is advertised on a daily basis as a way of â€Å"enjoying the party. † One example that I have observed would be with the recent kick off of the American football season. My television sets are invaded with beer commercials emphasizing on how fans seem to enjoy the game more when they are drinking a beer, when I visit my ocal Wal-Mart or Publix, there is an area designed just for football fans made of beer products. Social psychology concepts concentrate on the individual and the situation in which that individual is in. As mentioned above, self-esteem is one of the examples that apply to individuals who use liquor, marijuana or tobacco as a coping mechanism. The self-concept of one not being able to function correctly without the liquor or the tobacco in their system is another concept of social psychology. In the long run the individual is at risk of affecting his or her health, their education, and their social standing. Associated Phenomenon Phenomenon’s such as social facilitation and social influence have been associated with behaviors, such as drinking and smoking in social events. Social influence â€Å"Social influence, effects of the presence of others on the way people think, feel, and behave† (Kowalski & Westen, 2005). Social influence is associated with both behaviors because the changes in behaviors are due to the attitudes of others or guidance towards a particular direction, in this case the drinking and smoking of tobacco or marijuana. Another example of how social influence affects the behavior of an individual in guiding them towards smoking or drinking with the perception that getting involved is pleasurable and accepted widely among other peers. One might find themselves as the only person the group of peers that does not smoke or drink, at one point or another they will involve themselves in the same activities because everyone else is drinking and smoking and they have not had any severe apparent consequences. When it becomes a routine for everyone around oneself to party constantly and go on drinking and smoking binges, conformity is another phenomenon that occurs because this person is accommodating themselves to standards of the rest of the group. Social facilitation Social facilitation is another phenomenon that is associated to individuals who use drinking and smoking as an excuse to behave in a certain way. Individuals use drinking as a way to express their feelings better in a group of people or towards a certain individual. For example, when a person drinks while out at a club or a party, they may feel as if they have the confidence to approach others they may find attractive or laugh and dance within the group of partygoers. â€Å"Small amounts of alcohol might dull painful feelings† (C. A. M. H. , 2008). Just as individuals use drinking and smoking as a way to feel happy and relaxed others use these substances to feel numb. Individuals use alcohol as a gateway to forgetting any traumatic events in their lives such as being sexually, physically, or emotionally abused. The stress of dealing with other individuals, like a significant other, a parent, or a child, with mental or health issue also leaves behind emotional distress, and one may feel that the way of dealing with the stress is to drink. Recently a close friend started smoking cigarettes; I questioned her on why she had taken on this habit. Her response left me flabbergasted; it seemed ridiculous to me, that she had taken on this habit because it was a way of dealing with the stress of having three children at the age of 21. Therapeutic Intervention When an individual or an individual’s family and friends consider therapeutic intervention it is for the simple fact that the behavior has escalated to an uncontrollable degree. When an individual loses control of his or her life, the therapeutic intervention is what provides the guidance, reasoning, and inspiration for the person to make the needed changes to get back on track. The determining factor of whether a person should consider therapeutic intervention or not is the frequency and quantity of alcohol, tobacco, or marijuana is consuming. Another determining factor would be the reason of why this individual has taken on this behavior. As mentioned earlier, many people begin smoking marijuana or cigarettes and begin drinking alcohol when they have encountered stressful situations as well as having to deal with traumatic events. Conclusion As examined, behaviors such as smoking and drinking are changed endured by humans based on social situations they encounter. Social situations such as parties or traumatic past events may trigger oneself to act a certain way or take on new habits. Individuals may feel that by partaking in certain activities their social standings will improve. Unfortunately, if the right amount of self control is not applied an individual may find oneself overwhelmed and become addicted to a substance or lifestyle. References Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. PAHO. (2008). Retrieved October  11, 2009, from http://www. camh. net/About_Addiction_Mental_Health/Drug_and_Addiction_Informatio n/Women_and_Alcohol/alcohol_feelings. html Thadani, Vandana; Huchting, Karen; LaBrie, Joseph. (2009, August 1). Alcohol-related information in multi-component interventions and college students' drinking behavior The Free Library. (2009). Retrieved October 10, 2009 from http://www. thefreelibrary. com/Alcohol-related information in multi-component interventions and†¦ -a0207704284 University of Phoenix. (2009). Week Five Readings: Psychology, Chapter 15. Retrieved October 6, 2009, from University of Phoenix, Week Five, PSY/300—General Psychology Web site. Wilson, Brenda. (2008, October  23). University Uses ‘Social Norming' to Curb Drinking. NPR Health. Retrieved from http://www. npr. org/templates/story/story. php? storyId=95937183 Social Influences on Behavior Albert Fish was a 20th century serial killer, child rapist, sadomasochist, and cannibal. This paper is a brief description focused on the forces that impacted his life from the viewpoint of developmental psychology. The author made an effort to distinguish between the influences of hereditary and environment on psychological development. He also explains what family issues and social support systems may have influenced Albert Fish’s developmental growth and adjustment. Two different theories of personality selected by the author was applied to Fish, which includes a discussion of how each theory differs in terms of how it explains Fish’s unique patterns and traits. The author also makes a determination regarding which theory he believes best explains Fish’s behaviors and achievements. Forces That Impact Life: Developmental Psychology Developmental psychology is defined as â€Å"The branch of psychology concerned with the study of progressive behavioral changes in an individual from birth until death† (Farlex, 2011). Albert Fish’s rough childhood contributed to the person he became, along with other factors that occurred throughout adulthood. He was born to poverty on May 19, 1870. His father passed away on October 15, 1875. His mother could not take care of Fish, therefore, she placed him in a religious orphanage called Saint John’s Orphanage. Here he learned to lie, cheat, beg, and steal. He also experienced and seen wrong-doings no boy, or person, should. Albert Fish was whipped bare-bottomed at the orphanage and was forced to witness other boys being whipped. He said this abuse was the beginning of his ruined mind. During his interview, before his execution, he said he felt his first sex feeling while watching the other boys be whipped, which eventually developed while he was receiving the abuse. When Fish left the orphanage, he felt the need to satisfy these sexual urges with sexual experimentation and prostitution, which included men. His needs and urges became very sadomasochistic. He enjoyed what hurt. He inflicted pain on not only himself, but also on others. He would not stop until he reached his climax, and progress on with the torcher for days. In his late 20s, Albert Fish married. His wife had the same types of sexual interest as he. While he was married, he continued to lead a double life by fulfilling his sadomasochistic fantasies with boys. He made this way of life easily obtainable by working as a traveling housepainter and being away more than he was home. Fish traveled all over the United States. â€Å"I had children in every state,† Albert Fish stated during his interview (Borowski, 2006). After 19 years of marriage, Albert Fish’s wife left him for another man. She had sent their six children off to the movies, and they came home to an empty house. He came home to find his six children alone and discover she had taken everything. Fish believed this was his breaking point. His children testified, during his trial, although he never hit them or raised his voice to them, they did witness his self-torcher. They testified to finding blood covered boards with nails sticking out of one end and to seeing him drive needles into himself. An x-ray was taken of his pelvic region that showed 29 needles lodged within. In 1928, approximately five years after his wife abandoned him and their children, Albert Fish decided to act upon a growing urge. He responded to a newspaper advertisement of a young boy looking for employment. After he responded by telegram, he arrived at the young man’s house, bearing lunch. He quickly lost interest in the young man once Fish seen his younger sister, Grace Budd. He convinced her parents to let him take her to his niece’s birthday party, which was fictional. She was to never be seen again. Albert took Grace to an old abandoned house where he tricked her into coming into the house where he was naked, waiting for her. He strangled her, cut her up into little pieces, and devoured her. Fish said that he got the idea of cannibalism from his uncle in 1894, which was never verified. His uncle, Captain John Daus, sailed to China during the time of a famine. Children were sold to be butchered. They were brought out in parts to be cut to one’s choosing and sold as veal. The captain told his nephew human meat did taste of veal, and the behind was the sweetest part. The captain stole two children to bring home with him. He beat their behinds for days, while they were still alive, to make it nice and tender. Albert Fish decided he had to try it. Not only did the environment in which he grew up shape Albert Fish, it is believed that his genetic influences may have had a huge impact as well. â€Å"His family had a history of mental illness: his uncle suffered from religious mania, a brother was confined in the state mental hospital, another brother had died of hydrocephalus and his sister had a â€Å"mental affliction†. Three other close relatives suffered from severe mental illnesses and his mother was believed to suffer frequent aural and/or visual hallucinations† (Farlex, 2011). Albert Fish seems to fall in the postconventional moral development area of psychological development. Postconventional morality is how â€Å"people reason using abstract, self-defined moral principles that may not match conventional moral beliefs† (Kowalski & Western, 2009). Fish was a very religious man. He claimed that his reasoning for his crimes were of religious purposes. He took the word of the Bible and twisted it to make his doings the work of God. Several times he said he was visited by Jesus Christ. Jesus would give him messages telling him what to do. Fish identified religion with suffering. In all his doings, he thought he was doing right because no angels came and stopped him as they did in the story of Abraham and the sacrifice of his son Isaac. The word ‘stripes’ in the Bible he referred to the lashes left by being whipped. He performed castrations and sacrificed virgins. Fish put cannibalism on the same level as communion. Eat the flesh and drink the blood, and they will become one with him, and he with them. This made Albert Fish feel God-like and powerful. He said he inserted the needles into his pelvic region to purge himself of sin by torcher. Theories of Personality The two different theories of personality selected are the drive model of Freud’s theory of psychodynamics and the cognitive-social theory. â€Å"Freud reasoned that if a symptom is not of physiological origin and the patient is consciously trying to stop it but cannot, then opposing the conscious will must be an unconscious counter-will of equal or greater magnitude† (Kowalski Western, 2009), which is the basis for his theories. The drive model was proposed by two basics: sex and aggression. Albert Fish used both together to shape his life. To him they were one and the same. He enjoyed and got off the torcher of himself and others. â€Å"Cognitive–social theories share the behaviorist belief that learning (rather than instinct, conflict, or defense) is the basis of personality and that personality d ispositions tend to be relatively specific and shaped by their consequences. However, they also focus on beliefs, expectations, and information processing† (Kowalski & Western, 2009). This theory shows how environmental demands, and the way one processes the information about themselves and the world can have an effect on one’s interaction of a situation, such as school or in an orphanage, and one’s learned tendencies to behave in a certain way in a certain circumstance, which in turn can reflect one’s knowledge and beliefs. Albert Fish’s environment at the Catholic orphanage demanded him to watch other boys get whipped. He was also whipped himself. He began to relate this abuse to sexual gratification by torching himself and others. He also connected suffering to religious aspects, such as being purged of sin. In the end believed the religion was his reason for his crimes. The author believes the cognitive-theory best explains Albert Fish’s behaviors and achievements because of his strong belief that what he was doing was an act of God. If Fish was never subjected to the environment at the orphanage, he may not have developed the sexual urge from torcher. The author also believes many other factors in Fish’s life contributed to his deranged achievement, such as the family history of mental illness and the psychotic break, which occurred when his wife abandoned him and his children. Albert Fish’s environment and religious upbringing was horrid yet detrimental to his moral psychological development. It is obvious that family issues and support systems along with hereditary influences has greatly impacted his life and influenced his behaviors and achievements. Albert Fish was found guilty of murder in the first degree and sentenced to death by electric chair. He was 65. References Farlex. (2011). The Free Dictionary. Farlex, Inc. Retrieved May 22, 2011 from The Free Dictionary by Farlex: http://www. thefreedictionary. com/developmental+psychology Kowalski, Robin and Western, Drew. (2009). Psychology. 5th Ed. Chp. 10, 12, and 13. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Retrieved May 22, 2011 from the University of Phoenix: https://ecampus. hoenix. edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content/TOC. aspx? assetMetaId=e5b1e2e8-3a11-4d07-970f-cecd423d9973&assetDataId=63bf6c04-77c0-4129-afdb-dd2c6b73eccf Borowski, John. (2006). Albert Fish: In Sin He Found Salvation. Waterfront Productions. Schechter, Harold. (1990). Deranged: The Shocking True Story of America’s Fiendish Killer!